Abolition of serfdom
Introducing local councils
Reforming finances
Successful war of 1877-8 against Ottoman Empire
Main drawback was his refusal to sacrifice his autocratic powers. As a result dissatisfaction grew and he was assassinated on 1st March 1881 after two bomb attacks in St Petersburg by members of the revolutionary organisation ‘The People’s Will’.
Personal – Alexander feared peasant insurrections – he said it would be better to orchestrate reform from above.
Political – the legacy of the disastrous Crimean War (ended in 1856) was that it revealed corruption and inefficiency in the army. This was blamed by Dmitri Milyutin, later Minister for War, on the recruitment of serfs.
Moral – some landowners did argue it was immoral and dehumanizing to own serfs at all.
Economic – forced labour produced far less than volunteer labour.
General – By 1859 due to economic unrest the country faced a peasant war.
The procedure of the abolition and redistribution of land was to occur in three phases:
23 million landlords serfs were given their freedom, allowed to marry, travel and legal status. But they were compelled to remain under their lords control for two years.
The landlords land would now be farmed by hired help.
The serfs could keep their own cottages and gardens but had to buy their lands. Sometimes they were poorer after emancipation.
The communal open fields went to the MIR for use by all ex-serfs. The MIR continued to divide the allotments, regulate the dues of the community and accepted joint tax responsibility.
During the first two years all feudal dues were to paid and the landlords land farmed as normal.
Communal courts replaced nobles local control. Managed by ex-serfs under supervision of government officials and a noble.
Arrangements made for distribution of land and size of the redemption payments.
Began once agreement reached on price of land.
Peasants would spread the repayment of the government loan to buy their land over a 49 year period in the form of ‘redemption payments’.
This became a form of direct taxation and was roughly equivalent to the previous feudal dues.
Usually land was overvalued – to the detriment of the peasant. They also had to continue to pay poll tax until 1886.
Peasants legal and economic ties changed from the nobility to the commune and the government.
What were the main effects of emancipation?
Peasants were given freedom from the nobles. Some peasants got more land creating a class of rich peasant called a kulak. They rapidly became resented by other peasants. They now had the freedom to emigrate, ended feudal dues and military service, and local autonomy was strengthened through increasing the powers of the MIR.
However there was an overall loss of land. Ex-serfs could pay 134% of the real value of their land as well. Increased debt existed in the form of redemption payments. The MIR took over from the nobility in administering justice and collecting taxes. The regular reallocation of land in the MIR meant no-one wanted to improve their land – farming became based on an extensive rather than intensive process. Practice of dividing land among male heirs led to further fragmentation of land. General discontent and riots continued.
Stagnation in agriculture dealt with by emancipation of the serfs. But backwardness continued due to the influence of the MIR.
Backwardness of economy and society affected the military – reforms and building of railways helped to ensure victory in Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8.
Increasing bureaucracy and glaring injustice led Alexander to bring in local government councils or ZEMSTVA. But they were not given adequate authority. Autocracy remained paramount.
Growing unrest among the intelligentsia led Alexander to reform censorship laws – this encouraged further revolt that he could not afford if he wished to maintain autocracy. It was clear what had to happen if radical reform was to become possible.
Did Alexander lay the foundations for 1917?
Alexander began his reign by:
Stopping army recruitment
Relaxing censorship
Releasing Decembrists still in prison or in exile
Lifting restrictions on foreign travel
Emancipation of the serfs in 1861
Army reforms
Military colonies were abolished
Length of service reduced from 25 to 6 years
Training and discipline were improved
Local government reforms
Creation of new local government bodies called zemstvos (pl. zemstva) to run public health, prisons, roads, famine relief, agriculture and primary education.
But, they were invariably underfunded and the police remained answerable to the Ministry of the Interior.
However, they did provide opportunities for people to become involved in political life.
Legal reforms
Juries were introduced, courts opened to the public; and judges better paid.
Political cases, however, were dealt with separately.
The new courts enjoyed great freedom of expression and law became a popular career option for the rising intelligentsia.
Censorship and the Press
Education
Private schools teaching “dangerous” subjects such as history grew.
Improvements in literacy rates and primary education.
Universities were liberalised; students could travel abroad; and were not under surveillance when off campus.
Economic reforms
Industrial development occurred but only slowly. Coal and oil production, however, developed massively under Alex II.
The peasant market was still very fragile and transport a huge limitation.
Finance remained pretty much untouched.
The nationalities
Growing national consciousness in Europe in the 19th C affected Russia too and Alexander relaxed many controls and restrictions on Ukrainians, Finns, Poles, and Jews.
Political reform
This was effectively a no go area for Alexander. His father, Nicholas I, on his death bed had famously told him, “Hold onto everything.” And he did!
His autocratic powers remained intact. Indeed his motivation for reform from above had been principally to prevent revolution from below.
By the mid-60’s his reforms pretty much ground to a halt. Following an assassination attempt on his life, his enthusiasm for reform dissipated and a long period of reaction set in that was to be continued even more fiercely by his son, Alexander III after his (Alexander II’s) assassination in 1881.
So – What was the 'Reaction' to this. Look at the material below. Massolit first.
Use your textbooks to help you.